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, a Norwegian CubeSat (10 cm cube)
A CubeSat (U-class spacecraft) is a type of
that is made up of multiples of 10×10×11.35 cm cubic units. CubeSats have a mass of no more than 1.33 kilograms per unit, and often use
(COTS) components for their
and structure. CubeSats are most commonly put in orbit by deployers on the , or launched as s on a .
(Cal Poly) and
developed the CubeSat specifications to promote and develop the skills necessary for the design, manufacture, and testing of small satellites intended for
(LEO) that perform a number of scientific research functions and explore new space technologies. Academia accounted for the majority of CubeSat launches until 2013, when over half of launches were for non-academic purposes, and by 2014 most newly deployed CubeSats were for commercial or amateur projects. CubeSats have been built by large and small companies alike, while other projects have been the subject of
campaigns.
Uses typically involve experiments which can be miniaturized or serve purposes such as
or . Many CubeSats are used to demonstrate spacecraft technologies that are targeted for use in small satellites or that present questionable feasibility and are unlikely to justify the cost of a larger satellite. Scientific experiments with questionable underlying theory may also find themselves aboard CubeSats as their low cost could justify riskier experiments. Biological research payloads have been flown on several missions, with more planned. Several missions to the
are planned to use CubeSats.
Some CubeSats became , being launched by universities, state, or private companies.
1U CubeSat structure
The CubeSat
was proposed in 1999 by professors
of .:159 The goal was to enable
to be able to design, build, test and operate in space a
with capabilities similar to that of the first spacecraft, . The CubeSat, as initially proposed, did not set out
rather, it became a standard over time by a process of . The first CubeSats were launched in June 2003 on a
, and approximately 75 CubeSats had been placed into orbit by 2012.
The need for such a small-factor satellite became apparent in 1998 as a result of work done at Stanford University's Space System Development Laboratory. At SSDL, students had been working on the
(Orbiting Picosatellite Automatic Launcher) microsatellite since 1995. OPAL's mission to deploy daughter-ship "" had resulted in the development of a launcher system that was "hopelessly complicated" and could only be made to work "most of the time". With the project's delays mounting, Twiggs sought out
funding that resulted in the redesign of the launching mechanism into a simple pusher plate concept with the satellites held in place by a spring-loaded door.:151–157
Desiring to shorten the development cycle experienced on OPAL and inspired by the picosatellites OPAL carried, Twiggs set out to find "how much could you reduce the size and still have a practical satellite". The picosatellites on OPAL were 10.1×7.6×2.5 cm, a size that was not conducive to covering all sides of the spacecraft with solar cells. Inspired by a 4-inch cubic plastic box used to display
in stores, Twiggs first settled on the larger 10-centimeter cube as a guideline for the new (yet-to-be-named) CubeSat concept. A model of a launcher was developed for the new satellite using the same pusher plate concept that had been used in the modified OPAL launcher. Twiggs presented the idea to Puig-Suari in the summer of 1999 and then at the Japan-U.S. Science, Technology and Space Applications Program (JUSTSAP) conference in November 1999.:157–159
The term "CubeSat" was coined to denote
that adhere to the standards described in the CubeSat design specification. Cal Poly published the standard in an effort led by aerospace engineering professor Jordi Puig-Suari. , of the Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics at Stanford University, and currently a member of the space science faculty at Morehead State University in Kentucky, has contributed to the CubeSat community. His efforts have focused on CubeSats from educational institutions. The specification does not apply to other cube-like nanosatellites such as the NASA "MEPSI" nanosatellite, which is slightly larger than a CubeSat. GeneSat-1 was NASA's first fully automated, self-contained biological spaceflight experiment on a satellite of its size. It was also the first U.S. launched CubeSat. This work, lead by John Hines, at NASA Ames Research was the catalyst for the entire NASA CubeSat program.
The CubeSat specification accomplishes several high-level goals. The main reason for miniaturizing satellites is to reduce the cost of deployment and are often suitable for launch in multiples, using the excess capacity of larger launch vehicles. The CubeSat design specifically minimizes risk to the rest of the launch vehicle and payloads. Encapsulation of the launcher– interface takes away the amount of work that would previously be required for mating a piggyback satellite with its launcher. Unification among payloads and launchers enables quick exchanges of payloads and utilization of launch opportunities on short notice.
Standard CubeSats are made up of 10×10×11.35 cm units designed to provide 10×10×10 cm or 1 liter of useful volume while weighing no more than 1.33 kg (2.9 lb) per unit. The smallest standard size is 1U, while 3U+ is the largest being composed of three units stacked lengthwise with an additional 6.4 cm diameter cylinder centered on the long axis and extending 3.6 cm beyond one face.
has constructed and launched two smaller form CubeSats of 0.5U for radiation measurement and technological demonstration. In recent years larger CubeSat platforms have been proposed, most commonly 6U (10×20×30 cm or 12×24×36 cm) and 12U (20x20x30 cm or 24x24x36 cm), to extend the capabilities of CubeSats beyond academic and technology validation applications and into more complex science and national defense goals. In 2014 two 6U
CubeSats were launched for maritime surveillance, those two CubeSats represent the largest CubeSats flown as of 2015. The 2018 launch of the
lander to Mars, will include two 6U CubeSats called
Scientist holding a CubeSat chassis
Since nearly all CubeSats are 10×10 cm (regardless of length) they can all be launched and deployed using a common deployment system called a Poly-PicoSatellite Orbital Deployer (P-POD), developed and built by Cal Poly.
No electronics
or communications protocols are specified or required by the CubeSat Design Specification, but COTS hardware has consistently utilized certain features which many treat as standards in CubeSat electronics. Most COTS and custom designed electronics fit the form of , which was not designed for CubeSats but presents a 90 × 96 mm profile that allows most of the spacecraft's volume to be occupied. Technically, the PCI-104 form is the variant of PC/104 used and the actual
used does not reflect the pinout specified in the PCI-104 standard. Stackthrough connectors on the boards allow for simple assembly and electrical interfacing and most manufacturers of CubeSat electronics hardware hold to the same signal arrangement, but some products do not, so care must be taken to ensure consistent signal and power arrangements to prevent damage.
Care must be taken in electronics selection to ensure the devices can tolerate the radiation present. For very
(LEO) in which atmospheric reentry would occur in just days or weeks,
can largely be ignored and standard consumer grade electronics may be used. Consumer electronic devices can survive LEO radiation for that time as the chance of a
(SEU) is very low. Spacecraft in a sustained low Earth orbit lasting months or years are at risk and only fly hardware designed for and tested in irradiated environments. Missions beyond low Earth orbit or which would remain in low Earth orbit for many years must use
devices. Further considerations are made for operation in high vacuum due to the effects of , , and , which may result in mission failure.
Different classifications are used to categorize such
based on mass. 1U CubeSats belong to the genre of picosatellites.
Minisatellite (100–500 kg)
Microsatellite (10–100 kg)
Nanosatellite (1–10 kg)
Picosatellite (0.1–1 kg)
Femtosatellite (0.01–0.1 kg)
Most CubeSats carry one or two
as their primary mission .
A skeletonized 1U structure with computer offered by Pumpkin Inc.
The number of joined units classifies the size of CubeSats and according to the CubeSat Design Specification and are
along only one axis to fit the forms of 0.5U, 1U, 1.5U, 2U, or 3U. All the standard sizes of CubeSat have been built and launched, and represent the form factors for nearly all launched CubeSats as of 2015. Materials used in the structure must feature the same
as the deployer to prevent jamming. Specifically, allowed materials are four aluminum alloys: , , , and . Aluminum used on the structure which contacts the P-POD must be anodized to prevent , and other materials may be used for the structure if a waiver is obtained. Beyond cold welding, further consideration is put into material selection as not all materials can be . Structures often feature soft dampers at each end, typically made of rubber, to lessen the effects of impacting other CubeSats in the P-POD.
Protrusions beyond the maximum dimensions are allowed by the standard specification, to a maximum of 6.5 mm beyond each side. Any protrusions may not interfere with the deployment rails and are typically occupied by antennas and solar panels. In Revision 13 of the CubeSat Design Specification an extra available volume was defined for use on 3U projects. The additional volume is made possible by space typically wasted in the P-POD Mk III's spring mechanism. 3U CubeSats which utilize the space are designated 3U+ and may place components in a cylindrical volume centered on one end of the CubeSat. The cylindrical space has a maximum diameter of 6.4 cm and a height no greater than 3.6 cm while not allowing for any increase in mass beyond the 3U's maximum of 4 kg. Propulsion systems and antennas are the most common components that might require the additional volume, though the payload sometimes extends into this volume. Deviations from the dimension and mass requirements can be waived following application and negotiation with the .
CubeSat structures do not have all the same strength concerns as larger satellites do, as they have the added benefit of the deployer supporting them structurally during launch. Still, some CubeSats will undergo
to ensure that components unsupported by the P-POD remain structurally sound throughout the launch. Despite rarely undergoing the analysis that larger satellites do, CubeSats rarely fail due to mechanical issues.
Like larger satellites, CubeSats often feature multiple computers handling different tasks in
including the , power management, payload operation, and primary control tasks. COTS attitude control systems typically include their own computer, as do the power management systems. Payloads must be able to interface with the primary computer to be useful, which sometimes requires the use of another small computer. This may be due to limitations in the primary computer's ability to control the payload with limited communication protocols, to prevent overloading the primary computer with raw data handling, or to ensure payload's operation continues uninterrupted by the spacecraft's other computing needs such as communication. Still, the primary computer may be used for payload related tasks, which might include , , and . Tasks which the primary computer typically handles include the delegation of tasks to the other computers, attitude control, calculations for , , and activation of active thermal control components. CubeSat computers are highly susceptible to radiation and builders will take special steps to ensure proper operation in the high radiation of space, such as the use of the . Some satellites may incorporate
by implementing multiple primary computers, this could be done on valuable missions to lessen the risk of mission failure. Consumer
have been used for computing in some CubeSats, such as NASA's .
concept: a controllable
for CubeSats relies on miniaturizing technology without significant performance degradation. Tumbling typically occurs as soon as a CubeSat is deployed, due to asymmetric deployment forces and bumping with other CubeSats. Some CubeSats operate normally while tumbling, but those that require pointing in a certain direction or cannot operate safely while spinning, must be detumbled. Systems that perform attitude determination and control include , , thrusters, , , Earth sensors, , and . Combinations of these systems are typically seen in order to take each method's advantages and mitigate their shortcomings.
are commonly utilized for their ability to impart relatively large
for any given energy input, but reaction wheel's utility is limited due to saturation, the point at which a wheel cannot spin faster. Examples of CubeSat reaction wheels include the Maryland Aerospace MAI-101 and the Sinclair Interplanetary RW-0.03-4. Reaction wheels can be desaturated with the use of thrusters or magnetorquers. Thrusters can provide large moments by imparting a
on the spacecraft but inefficiencies in small propulsion systems cause thrusters to run out of fuel rapidly. Commonly found on nearly all CubeSats are magnetorquers which run electricity through a
to take advantage of Earth's magnetic field to produce a . Attitude-control modules and solar panels typically feature built-in magnetorquers. For CubeSats that only need to detumble, no attitude determination method beyond an
or electronic
is necessary.
Pointing in a specific direction is necessary for Earth observation, orbital maneuvers, maximizing solar power, and some scientific instruments. Directional pointing accuracy can be achieved by sensing Earth and its horizon, the Sun, or specific stars. Sinclair Interplanetary's SS-411 sun sensor and ST-16 star tracker both have applications for CubeSats and have flight heritage. Pumpkin's Colony I Bus uses an aerodynamic wing for passive attitude stabilization. Determination of a CubeSat's location can be done through the use of on-board GPS, which is relatively expensive for a CubeSat, or by relaying radar tracking data to the craft from Earth-based tracking systems.
CubeSat propulsion has made rapid advancements in the following technologies: , , , and . The biggest challenge with CubeSat propulsion is preventing risk to the launch vehicle and its primary
while still providing significant capability. Components and methods that are commonly used in larger satellites are disallowed or limited and the CubeSat Design Specification (CDS) requires a waiver for pressurization above 1.2 standard , over 100 Wh of stored chemical energy, and hazardous materials. Those restrictions pose great challenges for CubeSat propulsion systems, as typical space propulsion systems utilize combinations of high pressures, high energy densities, and hazardous materials. Beyond the restrictions set forth by , various technical challenges further reduce the usefulness of CubeSat propulsion.
cannot be used in small engines due to the complexity of gimbaling mechanisms, thrust vectoring must instead be achieved by thrusting asymmetrically in multiple-nozzle propulsion systems or by changing the center of mass relative to the CubeSat's geometry with actuated components. Small motors may also not have room for
methods that allow smaller than fully-on thrust, which is important for precision maneuvers such as . CubeSats which require longer life also benefit from propulsion systems, when used for
a propulsion system can slow .
typically stores , such as , in a
and releases the gas through a
to produce thrust. Operation is handled by just a single
in most systems, which makes cold gas the simplest useful propulsion technology. Cold gas propulsion systems can be very safe since the gases used do not have to be volatile or , though some systems opt to feature dangerous gases such as . This ability to use inert gases is highly advantageous to CubeSats as they are usually restricted from hazardous materials. Unfortunately, only low performance can be achieved with them, preventing high impulse maneuvers even in low mass CubeSats. Due to this low performance, their use in CubeSats for main propulsion is limited and designers choose higher efficiency systems with only minor increases in complexity. Cold gas systems more often see use in CubeSat attitude control.
systems use a chemical reaction to produce a high-pressure, high-temperature gas that accelerates out of a . Chemical propellant can be liquid, solid or a hybrid of both. Liquid propellants can be a
passed through a , or
and a . The benefits of
are relatively low-complexity/high-thrust output, low power requirements, and high reliability. Monopropellant motors tend to have high thrust while remaining comparatively simple, which also provides high reliability. These motors are practical for CubeSats due to their low power requirements and because their simplicity allows them to be very small. Small
fueled motors have been developed, but may require a waiver to fly due to restrictions on hazardous chemicals set forth in the CubeSat Design Specification. Safer chemical propellants which would not require hazardous chemical waivers are being developed, such as AF-M315 () for which motors are being or have been designed. A "Water Electrolysis Thruster" is technically a chemical propulsion system, as it burns
which it generates by on-orbit .
Busek's BIT-3 ion thruster proposed for NASA's Lunar IceCube mission
typically uses electric energy to accelerate propellant to high speed, which results in high . Many of these technologies can be made small enough for use in nanosatellites, and several methods are in development. Types of electric propulsion currently being designed for use in CubeSats include , , , , and . Several notable CubeSat missions plan to use electric propulsion, such as NASA's . The high efficiency associated with electric propulsion could allow CubeSats to propel themselves to Mars. Electric propulsion systems are disadvantaged in their use of power, which requires the CubeSat to have larger solar cells, more complicated power distribution, and often larger batteries. Furthermore, many electric propulsion methods may still require pressurized tanks to store propellant, which is restricted by the CubeSat Design Specification.
used an , which is nothing like a solar sail, despite its name. This technology used an
to deflect
to produce thrust. It is similar to an
in that the craft only needs to supply electricity to operate.
 (also called light sails or photon sails) are a form of spacecraft propulsion using the  (also called solar pressure) from stars to push large ultra-thin mirrors to high speeds, requiring no propellant. Force from a solar sail scales with the sail's area, this makes sails well suited for use in CubeSats as their small mass results in the greater acceleration for a given solar sail's area. However, solar sails still need to be quite large compared to the satellite, which means useful solar sails must be deployed, adding mechanical complexity and a potential source of failure. This propulsion method is the only one not plagued with restrictions set by the CubeSat Design Specification, as it does not require high pressures, hazardous materials, or significant chemical energy. Few CubeSats have employed a solar sail as its main propulsion and stability in deep space, including the 3U
launched in 2010, and the
in May 2015.
is scheduled for launch in March 2017, while at least two CubeSats that plan to launch on the 's first flight in September 2018 are set to use solar sails, the proposed
(NEA Scout) and the .
Winglet solar panels increase surface area for power generation
CubeSats use
to convert solar light to electricity that is then stored in rechargeable
that provide power during eclipse as well as during peak load times. These satellites have a limited surface area on their external walls for solar cells assembly, and has to be effectively shared with other parts, such as antennas, optical sensors, camera lens, propulsion systems, and access port. Lithium-ion batteries feature high energy-to-mass ratios, making them well suited to use on mass-restricted spacecraft. Battery charging and discharging is typically handled by a dedicated electrical power system (EPS). Batteries sometimes feature heaters to prevent the battery from reaching dangerously low temperatures which might cause battery and mission failure. Missions with higher power requirements can make use of
to ensure the solar panels remain in their most effective orientation toward the Sun, and further power needs can be met through the addition and orientation of deployed solar arrays. Recent innovations include additional spring-loaded solar arrays that deploy as soon as the satellite is released, as well as arrays that feature
mechanisms that would deploy the panels when commanded. CubeSats may not be powered between launch and deployment, and must feature a
pin which cuts all power to prevent operation during loading into the P-POD. Additionally, a deployment switch is actuated while the craft is loaded into a P-POD, cutting power to the spacecraft and is deactivated after exiting the P-POD.
Deployable high-gain mesh reflector antenna operating at Ka-band for the Radar in a Cubesat (Raincube).
The low cost of CubeSats has enabled unprecedented access to space for smaller institutions and organizations but, for most CubeSat forms, the range and available power is limited to about 2W for its communications antennae. They can use radio-communication systems in the , , , ,
and . For UHF/VHF transmissions, a single
are deployed by a spring-loaded mechanism.
Because of tumbling and low power range, radio-communications are a challenge. Many CubeSats use an
built with commercial measuring tape. For more demanding needs, some companies offer
for CubeSats, but their deployment and pointing systems are significantly more complex. For example,
are developing an inflatable dish antenna with a useful range to the Moon but appears to be poorly efficient. JPL has successfully developed
and Ka-band high-gain antennas for
and Radar in a CubeSat (RainCube) missions.
Traditionally,
Cubesats use antennas for communication purpose at UHF and S-band. To venture farther in the solar system, larger antennas compatible with the
(X-band and Ka-band) are required. 's engineers developed several deployable high-gain antennas compatible with 6U-class cubesats for
and NEA Scout. 's engineers have also developed a 0.5m mesh reflector antenna operating at Ka-band and compatible with the DSN that folds in a 1.5U stowage volume. For , 's antenna engineers designed a Folded Panel Reflectarray (FPR) to fit on a 6U Cubesat bus and supports X-band Mars-to-Earth telecommunications at 8kbps at 1AU.
Different CubeSat components possess different acceptable temperature ranges, beyond which they may become temporarily or permanently inoperable. Satellites in orbit are heated by
emitted from the , , sunlight reflected off Earth, as well as heat generated by the craft's components. CubeSats must also
either into space or into the cooler Earth's surface, if it is cooler than the spacecraft. All of these radiative heat sources and sinks are rather constant and very predictable, so long as the CubeSat's orbit and eclipse time are known.
Components used to ensure the temperature requirements are met in CubeSats include
for the battery. Other
techniques in small satellites include specific component placement based on expected thermal output of those components and, rarely, deployed thermal devices such as . Analysis and simulation of the spacecraft's thermal model is an important determining factor in applying thermal management components and techniques. CubeSats with special thermal concerns, often associated with certain deployment mechanisms and payloads, may be tested in a
before launch. Such testing provides a larger degree of assurance than full-sized satellites can receive, since CubeSats are small enough to fit inside of a thermal vacuum chamber in their entirety.
are typically placed on different CubeSat components so that action may be taken to avoid dangerous temperature ranges, such as reorienting the craft in order to avoid or introduce direct thermal radiation to a specific part, thereby allowing it to cool or heat.
CubeSat forms a cost-effective independent means of getting a payload into orbit. After delays from low-cost launchers such as , launch prices have been about $100,000 per unit, but newer operators are offering lower pricing.
Some CubeSats have complicated components or instruments, such as , that pushes their construction cost into the millions, but a basic 1U CubeSat can cost about $50,000 to construct so CubeSats are a viable option for some scho as well as small businesses to develop CubeSats for commercial purposes.
Main article:
CubeSats being launched from the
on the ISS on February 25, 2014.
One of the earliest CubeSat launches was on 30 June 2003 from Plesetsk, Russia, with 's Multiple Orbit Mission. CubeSats were put into a
and included the Danish
and DTUSat, the Japanese XI-IV and CUTE-1, the Canadian Can X-1, and USA's .
On February 13, 2012, three PPODs deployers containing seven CubeSats were placed into orbit along with the
satellite aboard a
rocket launched from French Guiana. The CubeSats launched were
Space (Politecnico di Torino, Italy), Goliat (University of Bucarest, Romania),
(Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary),
(Warsaw University of Technology, Poland), Robusta (University of Montpellier 2, France),
(University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy), and
(University of Vigo and INTA, Spain). The CubeSats were launched in the framework of the "Vega Maiden Flight" opportunity of the European Space Agency.
On September 13, 2012, eleven CubeSats were launched from eight P-PODs, as part of the "OutSat" secondary payload aboard a
rocket. This was the largest number of CubeSats (and largest volume of 24U) successfully placed to orbit on a single launch, this was made possible by use of the new NPS CubeSat Launcher system () developed at the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS). The following CubeSats were placed in orbit: SMDC-ONE 2.2 (Baker), SMDC-ONE 2.1 (Able), AeroCube 4.0(x3), Aeneas, , CP5, CXBN, CINEMA, and Re (STARE).
Five CubeSats (, , , , ) were placed into orbit from the
on October 4, 2012, as a technology demonstration of small satellite deployment from the ISS. They were launched and delivered to ISS as a cargo of , and an ISS astronaut prepared the deployment mechanism attached to 's robotic arm.
Four CubeSats were deployed from the , which was launched April 21, 2013 on the maiden flight of Orbital Sciences' . Three of them are 1U
built by NASA's
to demonstrate the use of
in CubeSats. The fourth was a 3U satellite, called Dove-1, built by .
Diagram showing
orbital configuration
A total of thirty-three CubeSats were deployed from the ISS on February 11, 2014. Of those thirty-three, twenty-eight were part of the
constellation of Earth-imaging CubeSats. Of the other five, two are from other US-based companies, two from Lithuania, and one from Peru.
is a 3U CubeSat prototype propelled by a . It was launched on 20 May 2015 from Florida. Its four sails are made of very thin
and have a total area of 32 m2. This test will allow a full checkout of the satellite's systems in advance of the main 2016 mission.
On October 5, 2015, AAUSAT5 (Aalborg University, Denmark), was deployed from the ISS. launched in the framework of the "Fly Your Satellite!" programme of the European Space Agency.
is a 3U launched to the
on 6 December 2015 from where it was deployed on 16 May 2016. It is the first mission launched in the
Science Mission Directorate CubeSat Integration Panel, which is focused on doing science with CubeSats. As of 12 July 2016, the minimum mission success criteria (one month of science observations) has been met, but the spacecraft continues to perform nominally and observations continue.
Three CubeSats were launched on April 25, 2016 together with Sentinel-1B on a Soyuz rocket VS14 launched from Kourou, French Guiana. The satellites were: AAUSAT4 (Aalborg University, Denmark), e-st@r-II (Politecnico di Torino, Italy) and OUFTI-1 (Université de Liège, Belgium). The CubeSats were launched in the framework of the "Fly Your Satellite!" programme of the European Space Agency.
On February 15, 2017 Indian Space Research Organisation () set record with the launch of 104 satellites on a single rocket. The launch of PSLV-C37 in a single payload, including the Cartosat-2 series and 103 co-passenger satellites, together weighed over 650 kg (1,433 lb). Of the 104 satellites, all but three were cubesats. Of the 101 nano satellites, 96 were from the United States and one each from Israel, Kazakhstan, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
QB50 is a proposed international network of 50 CubeSats for multi-point, in-situ measurements in the lower
(90–350 km) and re-entry research. QB50 is an initiative of the
and is funded by the European Commission as part of the 7th Framework Programme (FP7). Double-unit (2U) CubeSats (10×10×20 cm) are developed, with one unit (the 'functional' unit) providing the usual satellite functions and the other unit (the 'science' unit) accommodating a set of standardised sensors for lower thermosphere and re-entry research. 35 CubeSats are envisaged to be provided by universities in 19 European countries, 10 by universities in the US, 2 by universities in Canada, 3 by Japanese universities, 1 by an institute in Brazil, and others. Ten 2U or 3U CubeSats are foreseen to serve for in-orbit technology demonstration of new space technologies.
The Request for Proposals (RFP) for the QB50 CubeSat was released on February 15, 2012. Two "precursor" QB50 satellites were launched aboard a
on June 19, 2014. All 50 CubeSats were supposed to be launched together on a single
launch vehicle in February 2016, but due to the unavailability of the launch vehicle, 40 satellites are now planned to be launched aboard
in March 2017 and subsequently deployed from the . A dozen other cubesats have been manifested on the
C38 mission in April 2017.
An artist's rendering of
A and B during the descent of
The May 2018 launch, of the
stationary lander to Mars, will include two CubeSats to flyby Mars to provide additional relay communications from InSight to Earth during entry and landing. This will be the first flight of CubeSats in deep space. The mission CubeSat technology is called
(MarCO), a six-unit CubeSat, 14.4 inches (36.6 centimeters) by 9.5 inches (24.3 centimeters) by 4.6 inches (11.8 centimeters). MarCo is an experiment, but not necessary for the InSight mission, to add relay communications to space missions in important time durations, in this case from the time of InSight atmospheric entry to its landing.
MarCO will launch in May 2018 with the InSight lander and will separate after launch and then travel in their own trajectories to Mars. After separation, MarCO will deploy two radio antennas and two solar panels. The high-gain,
antenna is a flat panel to direct radio waves. MarCO will navigate to Mars independently from the InSight lander, making their own course adjustments on the flight.
During InSight's planned entry, descent and landing (EDL) in November 2018, the lander will transmit information in the
radio band to NASA's
(MRO) flying overhead. MRO will forward EDL information to Earth using a radio frequency in the , but cannot simultaneously receive information in one band if transmitting on another. Confirmation of a successful landing could be received on Earth several hours after, so MarCO would be a technology demonstration of real-time telemetry during the landing.
NASA's , created in 2010 provides CubeSat launch opportunities to educational institutions, non-profit organizations and NASA Centers. Since its inception the CubeSat Launch Initiative has launched 46 CubeSats flown on 12 ELaNa Missions from 28 unique organizations and has selected 119 CubeSat missions from 66 unique organizations.
missions have included: BisonSat the first CubeSat built by a tribal college, TJ3Sat the first CubeSat built by a high school and STMSat-1 the first CubeSat built by an elementary school. NASA releases an
in August of each year with selections made the following February.
NASA initiated its Cube Quest Challenge in 2015, a competition to foster innovation in the use of CubeSats beyond low Earth orbit. The Cube Quest Challenge, sponsored by NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate Centennial Challenge Program, offers a total of $5 million to teams that meet the challenge objectives of designing, building and delivering flight-qualified, small satellites capable of advanced operations near and beyond the Moon. Teams compete for a variety of prizes in lunar orbit or deep space. Up to three teams competing may be selected to launch their CubeSat design aboard the
The recurring CubeSats programme of the Education Office of the European Space Agency where university students have the opportunity to develop and implement their CubeSat mission with support of ESA specialists. Participating student teams can experience the full life cycle of a spacecraft from designing, building, and testing to eventually, the possibility of launching and operating their CubeSat.
rocket launching from
Unlike full-sized spacecraft, CubeSats have the ability to be delivered into space as cargo and then deployed by the International Space Station. This presents an alternative method of achieving orbit apart from launch and deployment by a .
are developing means of constructing CubeSats on the International Space Station.
NASA's CubeSat Launch Initiative has launched more than 46 CubeSats on its ELaNa missions over the last several years, and as of 2016, 57 are manifested for flight over the next few years. No matter how inexpensive or versatile CubeSats may be, they must hitch rides as secondary payload on large rockets launching much larger spacecraft, at prices starting around $100,000. Since CubeSats are deployed by P-PODs and similar deployment systems, they can be integrated and launched into virtually any launch vehicle. However, some launch service providers refuse to launch CubeSats, whether on all launches or only on specific launches, two examples are
(JAMSS) are two recent companies that offer commercial launch services for CubeSats as secondary payload, but a launch backlog still exists. Additionally, India's
has been commercially launching foreign CubeSats since 2009 as secondary payloads. On 15 Feb 2017, ISRO set the world record by launching 103 CubeSats on board its Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle for various foreign companies
also offer launch services for CubeSats.
On 5 May 2015,
announced a program based at the
dedicated to develop a new class of rockets designed specifically to launch very small satellites: the NASA
(VCLS), which will offer a payload mass of 30 kg to 60 kg for each launcher. Five months later, in October 2015, NASA awarded a total of $17.1 million to three separate startup launch companies for one flight each: $6.9 million to
(); $5.5 million to
(); and $4.7 million to
(). The payloads for the three flights under the VCLS contract have not yet been assigned. Other small satellite launch systems are under development that would carry CubeSats alongside a small payload, including the Neptune series of rockets by , 's Nanosat Launch Vehicle, and the
rocket. In addition to conventional launch vehicles, several
vehicles are in the works by , , and
(in the form of their ).
As of December 2015, only one launch vehicle that emphasizes small CubeSat payloads has made a launch attempt, the , broke up shortly after launch on 4 November 2015. The rocket was carrying 12 CubeSats of various sizes along with its 55 kilogram primary payload.
plans to launch CubeSats in New Zealand after the Mahia launch site is completed in 2016.
next to its P-POD before integration and launch
P-PODs were designed with CubeSats to provide a common platform for . P-PODs are mounted to a
and carry CubeSats into orbit and deploy them once the proper signal is received from the launch vehicle. The P-POD Mk III has capacity for three 1U CubeSats, or other 0.5U, 1U, 1.5U, 2U, or 3U CubeSats combination up to a maximum volume of 3U. Other CubeSat deployers exist, with the NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer (NRCSD) on the International Space Station being the most popular method of CubeSat deployment as of 2014. Some CubeSat deployers are created by companies, such as the ISIPOD (Innovative Solutions In Space BV) or SPL (Astro und Feinwerktechnik Adlershof GmbH), while some have been created by governments or other non-profit institutions such as the X-POD (), T-POD (), or the J-SSOD () on the International Space Station. While the P-POD is limited to launching a 3U CubeSat at most, the NRCSD can launch a 6U (10×10×68.1 cm) CubeSat and the ISIPOD can launch a different form of 6U CubeSat (10×22.63×34.05 cm).
While nearly all CubeSats are deployed from a launch vehicle or the International Space Station, some are deployed by the primary payloads themselves. For example,
deployed the , a 3U CubeSat. This was done again with the
as the primary payload launched on the maiden flight of the
rocket, carrying and later deploying four CubeSats. For CubeSat applications beyond Earth's orbit, the method of deploying the satellites from the primary payload will also be adopted. Eleven CubeSats are planned to be launched on the 's , which would place them in the vicinity of the . , a planned
, will also bring CubeSats beyond Earth orbit to use them as . Known as
A and B, they would be the first CubeSats sent beyond the .
saw a unique deployment process, when it was deployed by hand during a spacewalk on the International Space Station in 2014.
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invented the CubeSat, they never imagined that the tiny satellites would be adopted by universities, companies and government agencies around the world. They simply wanted to design a spacecraft with capabilities similar to
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and a battery.
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The official standard only defines up to 3U and 3U+ (a slightly larger but same-mass 3U). Larger sizes use have varying definitions depending on source. There is some confusion about 3U and 1U: the official standard claims a 3U masses at most 4 kg, while Spaceflight Services claims (see
) that 3U extends to 5 kg.
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As noted in the linked article, Interorbital promised its Neptune 45 – intended to carry 10 CubeSats, among other cargo – would launch in 2011, but as of 2014 it had yet to do so.
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