如何写英文科技论文的前言?
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一般来讲，科研论文都是八股论文，大的结构都是设定的，题目、摘要、前言、方法、结果、讨论和参考文献。可以说，每个部分都很有讲究都很重要，但难度并不一样，在上述这些内容中，最难写的是前言，其次是讨论。根据最近学习的几个内容，把自己的学习笔记贡献给大家，希望能有点价值。这次主要谈谈前言的写法。
首先，要清楚前言的作用或目的。论文的前言是“to convince readers that
you clearly know why your work is useful”就是要告诉读者“你非常清楚地知道你的工作有价值”。其次，我们要知道那些要素需要写。一般来讲，前言主要包括四个方面的内容。前面三个都属于背景，最后一个是小结。
一、大背景信息。
这主要是方便读者评价你的工作，其实同行对这个方面的内容可以说非常熟悉，这部分基本是大同行的共识。背景信息一般包括2个部分，一是大同行背景，二是小同行背景。
一般写大同行背景的时候大家都是比较类似的内容，不过也要根据你自己的研究有所侧重。例如关于脑缺血的研究，你如果研究细胞凋亡，你就需要围绕细胞凋亡来阐述。如果你研究炎症，那么你就需要围绕炎症来整理。英文表达不好的同学往往在这个部分就开始出现纰漏。因为这里不仅对概括能力要求比较高，而且需要照顾到整个研究的设计框架。建议在平时阅读的时候，注意学习和整理类似研究论文的描述模式。例如，脑缺血机制方面的研究，至少包括：兴奋毒、细胞死亡、炎症、酸中毒和自由基几个类型。这一些类型都分别选择出几个范文，放在一起反复阅读，一看作者的写作思路，二看相互之间不同的描述。当然具体到一篇论文，写作的风格不同，要结合整篇论文、杂志类型来分别对待。
写大背景往往是从普遍到特殊，普遍是描述研究对象的意义，比如某疾病的死亡率、发病率等的，暗指我选择的这个研究有价值受重视。比如肿瘤、中风、器官功能等等的。然后要从宏观上概括研究的大体情况，一般这类语言在google上就能见到类似描述（不可直接抄写），说明这开始的几句话属于套话。
有国外杂志主编曾经说，大背景需要用最简练的语言对你的研究领域进行清楚全面概述，但不要上历史课，不要面面具到，甚至写成综述（一定要针对你关心问题）。Give overall picture -keep
it brief!(no history lesson!)。这也很有道理。
二、小同行信息
然后要转到你要关心的方面，例如下面这个研究中就主要针对细胞凋亡，那么作者就说，脑梗死在中心部位以坏死为主，而半暗区主要是延迟性细胞死亡，主要类型就是细胞凋亡（其实现在的看法认为这里也里是细胞坏死也很重要，没有关系，有争议没有共识，你怎么说都可以，总有一些文献的支持）。现在就引出细胞凋亡，那么就要对细胞凋亡的背景进行描述。这部分重点是要尽量用不同的语言表达出大家共识的内容来，就是所谓要训练改写功夫。二是要主要和研究主题进行衔接。不要天马行空，忘记回顾到你的主题。例如你要研究脑缺血，总会落实到某一个方面。这个部分往往会在研究指标方面落实。例如你要用细胞凋亡来说明损伤程度和治疗效果，那么这里就需要对细胞凋亡在大背景的意义说出来。后面这个文章，因为作者后面研究中主要针对线粒体途径，于是就谈线粒体途径的基本内容。到这里就完成了大背景的介绍。
然后就过渡到小同行的背景，当然也要根据具体情况。例如这篇文章的研究是希望利用一氧化碳呼吸作为一种预适应方法，来达到预防脑缺血的目的。作者首先谈模型模拟的疾病的临床治疗方法，说治疗的手段只有低温，当然低温的手段存在许多limit（如果没有局限，就别玩了），其他的治疗方法，独立或结合低温就需要寻找了。作者这样说的Other therapies, which
either can be used alone or in combination with hypothermia, are therefore
needed.我们中文经常说，目前缺乏有效治疗手段，寻找新的治疗方法一直是研究热点。不如人家这样说更妥当。这是引子。
然后作者提出预适应，当然对这个东西进行描述。小损伤产生大保护的概念，早期晚期不同的保护情况，临床上也存在类似证据，当然这里要回答一个问题。用这种预先适应，或者预防，对这种偶然性疾病有什么应用潜力。作者解释存在一些可以预测的这类疾病，例如生产问题、手术等。总能找到理由（其实比较牵强，因为这样意义就十分有限了，不过研究这个东西的真正意义其实就是看一氧化碳是否可达到这个作用，用这个模型是因为稳定，有时候并不是想解决这个疾病本身，如果有预防效果，那么治疗效果往往也可以，应用的意义可以联想，同行都能理解）
国外学者一般强调这里需要回答三个问题， What is&the problem?
Are there any existing solutions? What are their main limitations?其实总结到一句就是：提出问题。前面大小同行背景，其实就是所谓的前沿内容Current state of knowledge，或者咱们要去探讨的问题。
三、解释解决方案。
前面是所谓的提出问题，具体到这个文章就是，用预适应的方法可以作为治疗脑缺血的一种方法，可以研究研究。那么随后就是：我怎么解决的，我有什么特殊的不同的思路。不过从本质上，这个部分也属于小小同行的背景介绍。也就是说局限到具体一个分子，一个手段上的背景描述。我们提供的这个文章是希望用呼吸小剂量的一氧化碳来达到预处理的目的（这句后本身不在这里说，这是为说这句话而解释）。一氧化碳的有关背景，有毒性、内源性分子、有细胞保护作用、也有人用这个做预适应的研究（和本课题很类似），小脑细胞上也有效果（几乎一样的内容）。
这里经常用 “however”, “remain unclear”等类型的语句引出你的观点和工作，这样的处理主要是强调你的独特性。但是如果不独特，就不要用这样的语言。
这部分的写法比较多，但最常见的就是这样的。前面我说什么什么是一种解决方法，我提出的这个方法是不错的，而且好像没有人尝试过。我们做了，发现可以造成什么什么的变化，说明我这个说法确实有道理。这是直接用结论的方法，也有不同的处理，只提问题和解决方案，不说结论。我觉得前面这个更好一些。写文章和讲故事类似，但毕竟不是故事，讲故事追求悬念层层，引人入胜，写论文应追求开门见山，震耳欲聋。
写前言需要克服的问题：
1、把握好全面和精炼的问题。写科技文章的本质是告诉别人新信息，那么你自己必须全面了解这个领域，但前言最需要的是简洁。
2、前言中不要把方法、结果讨论等拉来。这里introduction是介绍给读者，是以说服他继续全面阅读为目的。
3、千万不要过分使用novel，first time，first ever。这些词是俗气或幼稚的表现。科学首先就是创新，新颖性是必须的，内行认为这些词汇用在科学上这都是画蛇添足。如果确实新，那也就允许你用一次，千万别用两次。
4、引用文献在论文中很重要，在前言中更重要，这里的文献是你开展这一研究的依据，怎么强调都不过分
http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0042632
hypoxia-ischemia (HI) remains a major cause of acute mortality in newborns and
of cognitive and motor impairments in children .
Cerebral damage results from oxygen and tissue energy depletion that lead to:
acidosis, inflammation, glutamate excitotoxicity, cell death and generation of
reactive oxygen species (ROS) during reperfusion .
Cerebral hypoxia-ischemia induces distinct types of cell death: within the
ischemic core, rapid cell death occur while in the
penumbra, the region around the ischemic core, delayed apoptotic
cell death takes place hours and days after the insult, contributing to
secondary damage .
In the developing brain, apoptosis also plays a homeostatic role, and many
pro-apoptotic factors are normally up-regulated during early stages of
maturation ,
Therefore, apoptosis is closely related to the injury response after
hypoxia-ischemia in the immature brain of newborn infants .
Mitochondria play a major role in death of mammalian cells .
During the apoptotic process and upon mitochondrial membrane permeability,
several biochemical molecules confined to the inter-membrane space are released
to the cytosol thus activating proteases and nucleases. For example, cytochrome
c released from mitochondria interacts with apoptotic protease activating
factor 1 (Apaf-1) and caspase-9 to form the apoptosome that activates caspase-3
leading to cell death .
Currently,
hypothermia is the only treatment used clinically for minimizing cerebral
damage after perinatal hypoxia-ischemia, but it has limited efficiency and its
use has also limitations .
Other therapies, which either can be used alone or in combination with
hypothermia, are therefore needed. Preconditioning (PC) induction consists of
an insult that does not cause damage, but triggers a protective state
(tolerance) that increase cellular resistance against a subsequent and more
severe challenge ,
PC can induce an early response (minutes or hours) or a late response within days including de novo protein
synthesis .
Furthermore, clinical studies with patients suffering from transient ischemic
attacks (TIA)
and animal models ,
have suggested that cerebral tolerance induced by a PC state is an efficient
strategy to protect brain tissue against HI. Thus, preconditioning processes
are promising alternatives for therapy in patients at high risk of suffering
HI. Indeed, perinatal HI may eventually be predicted based on known risk
factors associated with previous ischemic episodes including intrauterine fetal
distress and hypoxic-ischemic i
Bonifacio et al. 2011). Also, PC-based therapies could be useful for neonates
going through major heart surgery with associated risks of global cerebral
ischemia ,
Carbon monoxide (CO)
is commonly known to be toxic. This is due to its high affinity for
haem-proteins, which can compromise oxygen delivery to tissues
(carboxy-haemglobin) or can decrease oxidative phosphorylation at the cellular
level by binding to cytochrome c oxidase .
CO is an endogenous molecule generated by haem-oxygenase (HO) activity along
with the production of free iron and biliverdin .
Low doses of exogenous CO are cytoprotective against inflammation and
apoptosis, in particular following cardiovascular incidents, organ rejection
and autoimmune disease in several models .
Also, in rat retinal ganglion cells, inhalation of 250 ppm of CO protected
against ischemia-reperfusion injury .
In the central nervous system (CNS), low amounts of CO limit neuroinflammation
in a model of multiple sclerosis
and induced vasodilation, presenting cytoprotective effects in the cerebral
circulation in a model of epileptic seizures in newborn piglets .
CO treatment also decreased infarct volume and brain damage in adult models of
transient and permanent focal cerebral ischemia when the animals were exposed
to CO immediately after middle cerebral artery occlusion ,
Nevertheless, the cellular mechanisms involved in CO-induced neuroprotection
are still not fully understood. In primary cultures of cerebellar neurons, CO
triggers preconditioning and prevents apoptosis by ROS signaling and modulation
of soluble guanylyl cyclase, nitric oxide synthase and mitochondrial ATP
dependent potassium channel .
Likewise, in primary cultures of astrocytes, CO inhibits apoptosis by directly
targeting mitochondria and preventing their membrane permeabilization, which is
also dependent on ROS and protein glutathionylation signaling .
preconditioning emerges as a promising strategy to limit brain damage following
perinatal ischemia, we have examined the ability of CO to induce
preconditioning and to limit apoptosis in the hippocampus in the present study.
Pre-treatment of rat pups with CO prevented hippocampal cell death via: an increase on Bcl-2 expression, a decrease on
cytochrome c translocation from mitochondria into cytosol and an inhibition of
caspase-3 activation. To our knowledge, this is the first study to use CO
preconditioning to prevent hypoxia-ischemia-induced neuronal death in the
developing brain.
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如何写出高水平英文科技论文 pdf
全部答案（共2个回答）
摘要是进行文件检索，促进国际科技交流的重要手段。科技论文通常采用信息型摘要（Informative abstract），其内容包括研究背景、目的、方法、结果和结论五个方面，重点在于方法、结果和结论。
百度文库，如果不是pdf转一下就行了，可以用Adobe的产品，或OpenOffice write或Libreoffice write都行。
W = Width, D = Depth, H = Height，应循序对应宽、长（常用的还是L, length)、高。
用元素守恒知道一些常用原子团然后正负结合一下就差不多了。当然还要考虑反应会不会发生的问题。
“高锰酸钾” 加热生成“ 锰酸钾、二氧化锰和氧气”
2KMnO4==...
对自由贸易保护贸易理论政策的研究 4.浙江外贸发展的战略规划 10.跨国公司与中国制造业基地 3.21世纪国际贸易政策的演变 6.跨国公司的东道国战略管理问题 ...
每个学校都有自己的规范，可以上网搜下你们学校的论文写作规范。
答: 求一篇食品安全文章
答: 你可以去爱问知识堂下载。
答: 得看别人设置了什么条件
一般在一个局域网里面你的用户都能打开对方分享的文档啊
规模以上工业企业是指全部国有企业(在工商局的登记注册类型为"110"的企业)和当年产品销售收入500万元以上(含)的非国有工业企业。
如果是下拉的，只有党员而没有预备党员一项，可填党员，但如果是填写的，你就老老实实填预备党员，填成党员对你没什么好处，填预备党员也不会有什么吃亏。
手机密码被锁住了，那么只有拿到客服去解锁了。
如果你使用的是PIN码，被锁，那么去移动营业厅解锁。
光设置自发光是不能看到这种效果的,正确操作步骤如下:
1:在材质编辑器中选择一个新的材质示例球,将其命名为灯筒(就是你上面那个发光物体).
2:在(明暗基本参数)Shader Basic Parameters展卷栏中设置材质的明暗器为(胶性)Blinn,在(胶性基本参数)Blinn Basic Psrameters展卷栏中设置材质参数(环境光)Amhient,(漫反射光)Diffuse,(高光反射)Specular均为白色,并设置自发光为100.
3:在视图中选中上面物体,在材质编辑器中单击赋予按钮,就可将材质赋予该物体了
考虑是由于天气比较干燥和身体上火导致的，建议不要吃香辣和煎炸的食物，多喝水，多吃点水果，不能吃牛肉和海鱼。可以服用（穿心莲片，维生素b2和b6）。也可以服用一些中药，如清热解毒的。
确实没有偿还能力的，应当与贷款机构进行协商，宽展还款期间或者分期归还； 如果贷款机构起诉到法院胜诉之后，在履行期未履行法院判决，会申请法院强制执行； 法院在受理强制执行时，会依法查询贷款人名下的房产、车辆、证券和存款；贷款人名下没有可供执行的财产而又拒绝履行法院的生效判决，则有逾期还款等负面信息记录在个人的信用报告中并被限制高消费及出入境，甚至有可能会被司法拘留。
第一步：教育引导
不同年龄阶段的孩子“吮指癖”的原因不尽相同，但于力认为，如果没有什么异常的症状，应该以教育引导为首要方式，并注意经常帮孩子洗手，以防细菌入侵引起胃肠道感染。
第二步：转移注意力
比起严厉指责、打骂，转移注意力是一种明智的做法。比如，多让孩子进行动手游戏，让他双手都不得闲，或者用其他的玩具吸引他，还可以多带孩子出去游玩，让他在五彩缤纷的世界里获得知识，增长见识，逐渐忘记原来的坏习惯。对于小婴儿，还可以做个小布手套，或者用纱布缠住手指，直接防止他吃手。但是，不主张给孩子手指上“涂味”，比如黄连水、辣椒水等，以免影响孩子的胃口，黄连有清热解毒的功效，吃多了还可导致腹泻、呕吐。
合肥政务区网络广告推广网络推广哪家公司比较好 一套能在互联网上跑业务的系统，被网络营销专家赞为目前最 有效的网络推广方式！
1、搜索引擎营销：分两种SEO和PPC，即搜索引擎优化，是通过对网站结构、高质量的网站主题内容、丰富而有价值的相关性外部链接进行优化而使网站为用户及搜索引擎更加友好，以获得在搜索引擎上的优势排名为网站引入流量。
良工拥有十多位资深制冷维修工程师，十二年生产与制造经验，技术力量雄厚，配有先进的测试仪器，建有系列低温测试设备，备有充足的零部件，包括大量品牌的压缩机，冷凝器，蒸发器，水泵，膨胀阀等备品库，能为客户提供迅捷，优质的工业冷水机及模温机维修和保养。
楼主，龙德教育就挺好的，你可以去试试，我们家孩子一直在龙德教育补习的，我觉得还不错。
成人可以学爵士舞。不过对柔软度的拒绝比较大。　　不论跳什么舞，如果要跳得美，身体的柔软度必须要好，否则无法充分发挥出理应的线条美感，爵士舞也不值得注意。在展开暖身的弯曲动作必须注意，不适合在身体肌肉未几乎和暖前用弹振形式来做弯曲，否则更容易弄巧反拙，骨折肌肉。用静态方式弯曲较安全，不过也较必须耐性。柔软度的锻炼动作之幅度更不该超过疼痛的地步，肌肉有向上的感觉即可，动作(角度)保持的时间可由10馀秒至30-40秒平均，时间愈长对肌肉及关节附近的联结的组织之负荷也愈高。
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如何写英文科技论文 papers
来自知乎：https://www.zhihu.com/question/
在我第一次写英文论文的时候，我的歪果仁老湿给予了莫大的帮助。他以一篇论文的形式呈现了怎样写论文。直到现在，翻出来看看还是有收获良多。这里面不仅给出了一篇正式论文的基本框架（你可以直接套进去），还包括了写论文的顺序，教你如何打草稿，如何写开头结尾，甚至reference的格式也给你讲的清清楚楚。
那么先发放福利word文档，百度云大家随意提取。在这里我也把主体部分给大家看一下。提取收藏的点个赞呗~~链接:
n3tb以下论文（知乎格式没办法，见谅）：1. Executive Summary
The executive summary provides a synopsis of the report. It should include:
· A statement on the purpose of the report – what it sets out to achieve
· A brief outline of the scope of the report and/or research methodology
· An outline of the major issues or findings covered in the report
· An outline of the major conclusions and recommendations of the report.
The executive summary should not include new information nor should it be used as an introduction to the report.
As the executive summary is a summary of the report, it should ALWAYS be the LAST section of the report written
2. Introduction or Background
It may include an outline of the terms of reference or the reasons for the decision to write the report (see below).
Explain the background to the issue/problem/topic (this could be the history, etc. that helps us understand the issue/problem/topic.
What are the different points of view/opinions about the issue/problem/topic?
What is likely to happen in the future?
This report was requested by a number of students having difficulty understanding how to write a report.
This report aims to give students a plan to follow when preparing their material and an example of the layout of a report.
The material for this report was gathered from various books and web sites which will be referred to later. This format is not the only way to write a report.
It is written especially for students undertaking Academic English. However it can be a useful guide to any student in any subject.
3. Scope of Report or Research Objectives
Outline the purpose of your report.
The scope of the report should define major issues or research objectives to be addressed by the report.
If in doubt, ask you teacher. They may be able to help you find the right place to look for information.
4. Research Methodology
Most reports will include:
· 4.1 primary sources of information – surveys, questionnaires
· 4.2 secondary sources of information – books, internet
This section needs to detail how the information for the report was obtained and any limitations. The place to start is in your own head. How much do you already know about the topic? Write everything down.
Use the library. Not just the internet. There are books, magazines, newspapers, and staff to help you. Take notes and organise the information in a folder.
Remember to write down all the information about any book or web site, etc. for the bibliography:author, title, date published, publisher and place published (see Appendix B of this report).
Note taking skills are necessary when reading information and you must summarise much of that information.
5. Detailed Findings
The largest section of the report – it will contain all the information and analysis, including tables, charts and diagrams.
The body must be divided into logical sections and subsections with headings identical to those in the Table of Contents.
It will include headings and sub-headings which reflect the contents of each section.
Although a report starts with a synopsis do not start writing it until AFTER you finish the introduction, body and conclusion in that order.
5.1 FIRST DRAFT
Divide the body of the report into headings and subheadings, so each section can be written on its own. This makes the task seem easier.
Use the passive voice (revise this section of English on Cue, Module 5). Use short sentences and simple, formal language. Include pictures if you want to make it more interesting e.g. ”Diagram 2 shows that……”
Use your computer’s spell check and print preview where possible. Plan the pages carefully. Careless layout will lose marks. Check grammar and punctuation.
When referencing a book, etc. in your writing remember quoting directly must use quotation marks e.g. “There are many reasons why people visit Australia…..” (Smith 2012).
Indirect quotes (paraphrasing): Smith (2012) says there are many different reasons people want to visit Australia.
Save two copies: one on your computer and one on a USB. Lost work means starting again.
5.2 SECOND DRAFT
Producing the second draft is not hard once your first draft of the report is edited, typed and saved.
6. Conclusion and Recommendations
This is a summary of the main findings of the report, especially those that are for the reader/client.
Conclusion should tell what the detailed findings mean for the reader/client in relation to the scope of the report or research objectives.
The recommendations should list the action that you recommend should be taken based on these conclusions.
6.1 CONCLUSION
It is hoped this guide will benefit students in at least two ways. Firstly, to give a step by step method to report writing. Secondly, it is to be used as an example of report writing.
The process of report writing is obviously a long and complex one. Each step should be completed before moving on to the next one. Do NOT put off starting to research and write just because it is difficult.
Make sure the information in the report is relevant to the topic and discusses the issues mentioned in the introduction.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
+ Take one step at a time
+ Do not waste time
+ Use all the resources available
+ Talk to your teacher if in doubt
+ Start now
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
The bibliography is an alphabetical list of references used in preparation of the report
Students should refer to their textbook for guidelines on how to correctly reference information sources.
Jordan, R.R (1990) Academic Writing Course, Collins ELT, London.
Mangubhai, Francis and Pritchard, R (1996) English on Cue, USQ, Toowoomba.
The appendices section is for material that is relevant and is referred to in the report, but is too long or is not necessary to be included in the body of the report.
Examples: Questionnaire
Appendices to be labelled: Appendix A, Appendix B etc.
WRITING A BIBLIOGRAPHY
Take careful note of the order in which the information appears below – alphabetically! The format is different for books, magazines and internet. Most entries begin with an author but if not then the title, etc. is shown.
Author’s family name, initial or first name, (date of publication), title in italics, name of publisher, place where published.
Barron, M L (2010) Business Finance, McGraw-Hill, Sydney.
Kitchen, P D (Ed.) (1997) Business Law: Fundamentals, Thompson, London.
Brown, M and White, P (2000) Writing Assignments, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne.
2.0 JOURNALS/MAGAZINES/NEWSPAPERS
Author’s family name, initial or first name, (date of publication),“title of article”, name of journal in italics, volume number, (issue number), pp. numbers.
Smith, B (2002) “Can you write an essay?” ,Education Times, 64, (10), pp. 24-28.
Mitchell, Ben (2000) “Students fail English test”, Xin Hua, 13 September, p. 5.
3.0 Web Sites
Author’s family name, first name/initial, (date of publication), title of page in italics, URL, date accessed. Or
Title of page, URL, date accessed.
Quinion, M, (1996) Citing online sources.Advice on online citations formats (Accessed 7.9.2013)
Information resource,
20/10/2012)
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The paper that you are requested to write should be a research paper, meaning that its goal is to present
the reader with a somewhat new, original way of looking at a concept or idea. In addition to analyzing primary sources – the novel(s), play(s), poem(s), or essay(s) that you chose as your focus – a research paper provides a context for its argument by summarizing
and commenting on secondary sources, which are other people’s analyses of primary sources. Hence a research paper is not just a summary of other people’s ideas. Instead, a research paper should evaluate those ideas and either propose a new argument or develop
an existing one. The following steps should help you plan and then write your paper. 1. STRUCTURING YOUR ARGUMENT a) Revisit your paper proposal and think about the questions and the argument that comprise your thesis
(you might need to refine, reformulate or expand them slightly at this stage).
b) Revisit your primary sources. Look for patterns in your observations about a text or event and take notes. As you read through your list of evidence, look for ideas that contradict each other, change, or are not fully explained.
When writing about literature, a symbol’s meaning might change or contradict itself in a poem, or a character might change his or her attitude toward an idea.
c) Skim through the text(s) again to find specific quotations and any other examples you may have missed. Consult the secondary sources that you have gathered. Focus on evidencethat relates
to your topic and strikes you as particularly interesting, confusing, or astute. Think about how each piece of evidence supports or contradicts your topic.
d) Take notes. It is a good idea to note each piece of evidence that may be relevant to your essay. List the source and page number, and make sure it is clear whether each piece of evidence is adirect citation),
a close paraphrase, or your own analysis or interpretation.
e) Define a Motive or Purpose for Writing. A good paper should be interesting to a broader audience. When you express your motive, you indicate why you are writing your paper. The motive is not the
argument itself but rather the reason that your argument should be interesting to your reader. Motives may take into account what other critics have written, common perceptions of an event, or historical context.
Some examples of motives:
--“Many critics see the relationship between Huck and Jim as fair and harmonious, but closer examination of the novel reveals that this is not the case.”
--“It has been often argued that Hamlet is a character who constantly delays action, especially any action leading to the revenge of his father. However, when one compares his behaviour with Laertes’s, one arrives at a different conclusion. Hamlet has no choice
but to delay.”
2. OUTLINING YOUR ARGUMENT
If you plan the steps of your argument beforeyou write your essay, you are less likely to get stuck or not know where to go next. An outline is like a map of your argument; it should show the sequence of your ideas and argument.
The first part of your outline should include your motive and your thesis statement. You also should write down the subcategories of your argument and note the evidence that you plan to use.
3. WRITING YOUR PAPER
a) THE FIRST PARAGRAPH: YOUR THESIS STATEMENT
The first paragraph of the paper is the most important—and probably the most difficult to write, as it describes the focus of your argument and your reason for making it.
You should start by 1) providing some relevant background information and then 2) explain your motive for writing and 3) state your thesis. Typically, you will want to make your thesis statement in the final
sentences of the introductory paragraph.
Example of a strong thesis paragraph:
b) BODY PARAGRAPHS
Use the body paragraphs of your paper to develop your argument. Typically, a short paper has about three body paragraphs between the thesis paragraph and the conclusion. However, you should use as many paragraphs as you need to express your
ideas effectively. Each paragraph should develop a single, specific component of your argument. A paragraph should not explore two separate ideas unless it explicitly tells why they are related to each other.
Some important points to consider when writing your body paragraphs:
à TOPIC SENTENCES
E ach paragraph should begin with a sentence that develops your thesis statement.
Topic sentences should introduce new information that confirms or complicates the argument that you state in the first paragraph.
à EVIDENCE AND ANALYSIS
Within the paragraph, you should use specific evidence to supportthe idea stated in your topic sentence. Evidence may include historical events, passages from your chosen text (primary source), or arguments that other people
have made about your topic (secondary sources).
Analysis sentences explain why this evidence supports the argument that you are making.
à TRANSITIONS WITHIN PARAGRAPHS
The ideas within each body paragraph should come in a logical sequence. This sequence can explain, complicate, or develop the idea of the topic sentence.
Transitional words help your reader understand how you are developing your main idea. These words indicate contrast, provide examples, explain results, or establish a sequence. Common transitional phrases include “furthermore,” “in addition,”
“in contrast,” “for example,” “as a result,” “hence” and “thus.”
Example of a good body paragraph:
à TRANSITIONS BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS
Just as the ideas within the paragraph should come in a logical sequence, so should the paragraphs themselves. Each paragraph should relate explicitly to the preceding and following paragraph.
c) CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH
A conclusion should explain the significance of your thesis statement in a larger context. Although a conclusion should provide a sense of closure, it should not make broad generalizations that imply that you have supplied an absolute solution
to the problem your paper addresses.
à TECHNIQUES FOR CONCLUDING
One of the most effective ways to provide a sense of closure is to cite a relevant quotation from the text you are working with and to explain how to interpret that quotation using your argument. Another technique is to explain a concept/term that you bring
up in your thesis statement. A further possibility is to end your paper by showing that your argument can be applied to a related topic – this reinforces the relevance of your ideas.
4. FORMATTING AND CITATIONS
You should format your paper according to the rules of the Modern Language Association (MLA).
à Basic Formatting Rules
· Standard A4 paper
· Font: 12-point Times New Roman
· Double-spaced
· Paragraphs indented 0.5 inch from the left margin
· Block quotations indented 1 inch from the left margin
· Page numbers: Number the first page in the upper right-hand corner. On all subsequent pages, place your last name before the page number (Garcia 12). Put the page numbers in the upper right-hand corner of the page, 0.5 inches from the top.
· The heading should include your name, your instructor’s name, the course name, and the date. Double-space the heading.
· Title: You do not need a separate title page. Center the title and place it one double space below the heading. Capitalize all principal words. Do not underline or italicize. Double-space titles longer than one line.
Example of heading and title:
à CITING QUOTATIONS
· Three lines of text or fewer: include in the text, surrounded by double quotation marks. [“xxxx.”]
· Three lines of text or more: indent 1 inch from the lef omit quotation marks.
· Three lines of poetry or fewer: include in the text, using solidi (/) to indicate line breaks.
· Three lines of poetry or more: offset as you would more than three lines of text (see rules above). Include line breaks. Do not use slashes to indicate line breaks.
· To indicate an omission: use an ellipsis [. . .] (three periods in a row with spaces between them). If the omission is at the end of a sentence or more than one sentence, add a period to the ellipsis.
à CITING IN TEXT (IN-TEXT CITATIONS)
For every quotation or reference in the text of your paper, indicate the author and page number of the referenced work in a parenthetical note immediately following the reference. The final quotation mark comes
before the first parenthesis, and the sentence’s punctuation comes after the final parenthesis. If you do not directly quote the author, but still reference / paraphrase his or her ideas, these rules apply.
Here are some basic MLA rules:
· Works by one author: In parentheses, after the quote, include the author’s last name and the page number. If you name the author in the text of the paper, include the page number but not the author’s name.
Example: It has been said that “all men may be created equal, but not all men live equally well” (Howard 421).
Example: Finton Howard firmly insists that “all men may be created equal, but not all men live equally well” (421).
· Works by two or three authors: Include each author’s name in the parentheses, separated by “and.”
Example: “A man who knows where the fish eat may soon eat fish himself” (Rogers and Llewellyn 15).
· Two or more works by the same author: Include a short version of the work’s title in the parenthetical note, separated from the author’s name with a comma.
Example: In her theory of representation, on the other hand, she is less interested in notions of beauty than in notions of “linguistic accuracy” (Martin, Language 143).
· Poems and verse dramas: Cite act, scene, and line numbers, separated by periods. Do not cite page numbers. Do not use Roman numerals. When poems are not divided into acts or scenes, cite only line numbers.
Example: (Shakespeare, Hamlet 1.23.218–219)
Example: (Keats 14–16) or (Keats lines 14–16)
5. WORKS CITED
The Works Cited section should follow the end of your paper. The purpose of this section is to make it possible for your readers to identify and consult the sources that you use to make your argument.
You should list at least two works besides your primary sources – and only one of these works can be in Chinese. If you list four sources, only two can be in Chinese, and so on, meaning that there must be a balance between sources in English
and sources in Chinese.
à BASIC RULES
· The Works Cited section must include every work you cite in your paper.
· Place the Works Cited section at the end of the paper, starting on a separate page.
· Single-space entries but leave an additional space between entries.
· Center the words “Works Cited” at the top of the page.
· Alphabetize the entries by author’s last name. For works with no listed author, alphabetize by title.
Henderson, Jonathan. Processes of Consciousness Encoded in Semiotic Sign-Sequences: A Political Approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
· Books with one, two, or three authors: Authors’ names, title (italicized), city of publication (include state abbreviations for smaller cities), publisher, and date.
Rawson, Claude. God, Gulliver and Genocide: Barbarism and the European Imagination, . Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001.
· Books with authors and editors or translators: Include the name of the editor or translator after the title, abbreviating “editor” to “Ed.” and “translator” to “Trans.”
Eliot, George. Middlemarch. Ed. Phillippa Howitzer. New York: Overlook Press, 1981.
· Two or more works by the same author: Sort alphabetically by title. For every entry after the first, replace the author’s name with three em-dashes.
Kelley, Randolph. My Time in Eden. Los Angeles: El Dorado Press, 1990.
———. You Can So Go Home Again. Los Angeles: El Dorado Press, 1972.
· Journal articles: Authors’ names, title of article (in quotes), journal title (italicized), date or volume and issue number, and page numbers.
Satchel, Marcus. “Shakespeare’s Women.” Shakespearean Times 26.7 (1982): 34–41.
· Websites: Complete URL and, if available, author information, title information, date text was posted, date site was accessed, and company or organization information.
Berry, Brandon. “Dodgers Strike Out on New Stadium Deal.” ESPN.com. 17 December 2001. 20 December 2001. .
· Articles in an encyclopedia, dictionary or reference book: Author’s name, title of the article, title of the work, and publication information (including number of volumes).
Ellerbe, Hyman. “Abraham Lincoln.” Encyclopedia of Political Leaders. Ed. Lavar O’ Denby. 4 vols. New York: Random House, 1977.
If no author is given, alphabetize by article title.
“Prolegomena.” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989.
à For works in Chinese, you should follow exactly the same MLA rules and indicate all the elements in pinyin.
6. CHECK SPELLING AND GRAMMAR
Double-check your paper carefully before submission. Computer spell-checking misses many, many mistakes. Reread your paper and look at spelling, subject-verb agreement, long sentences, and long paragraphs.
7. AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
If you fail to use citations to indicate which ideas you got from someone else, you are effectively claiming those ideas as your own, whether you mean to or not. Stealing an idea is called plagiarism, and it is a serious offense that may cost you your
grade and reputation.
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我简单说一下我在加拿大被老师反复灌输了4年的论文写作结构。众所周知，英语论文分为两种：Knowledge essay和 Cited essay（后者的称呼不确定）。前者是依靠自己的记忆学识来写，通常只有考试时才会出现。比如一些省统考，例如要考过才能上大学的Literacy test。后者则是在建立在有原文依据的借鉴下，并且表明出处而写出的论文。就像：
To justify this, when Lady Macbeth encourages her man successfully, she says “ When in swinish sleep their drenched natures lie as in a death, what cannot you and I perform upon th’ unguarded Duncan”( I. VII. 75-78).
之后至于文章结构，看下图（来自老师发的Handout）：表示一楼的答案已很全面，若有人需要其他详细资料我再多解释（就是你懒）
On the whole, 3U那年被essay虐得死去活来活来死去，到最后的麻木证明了真的只有练才是生路.........多找语法成熟的人帮忙改会有很多领悟。
————————————5.11更新的分割线——————————
这里是一个写论文的小tip。也是老师在教学时无数次强调的。
Argument。也就是你的Thesis Statment，是你写论文最重要的点。你的论文一定要对题，但是同时也不能定的太死，你的定论（Thesis Statment）要有可以让人say no的点。
For example:
In the relationship of marriage, the wife of the thane of Glamis becomes the key that saves Macbeth from his frightened mind.
这是一个Thesis Statement。你可以否定这个定论中the wife of the thane of Glamis到底有没有拯救她的丈夫，或者她丈夫有没有恐慌过。
In the relationship of marriage, the wife of the thane of Glamis is a savor to her panicky husband.
这个定论中就没有让人争论的地方了。若读者不能以一颗探究之心去读一篇论文，而是全盘接受作者的观点，那么论文写作的意义何在？
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这是吴凌峰先生（感谢@琥珀糖同学指正，是唐凌峰先生）在科学网发布的关于英文论文写作的初步总结和资料推荐，深以为然，转到知乎上和大家共享。如果有不合适之处请联系本人，将第一时间删除。
虽然我英文写作的经验不多，但是用英文做学术报告和教学的经验还是不少的。而且我的学术报告和写的中文文章一般都清晰易懂，所以以前一直以为英语写作对我而言不成问题。直到有一天，我看到了周耀旗老师的一篇文章。这篇文章对我启发非常大。我印象最深的是：论文写作时，新的信息和旧的（熟悉的）信息要合理安排，旧的信息在前，新的信息在后，而且新的信息在第一次出现的时候，必须介绍清楚。正是因为没有注意到这个问题，很多论文即使发表了，读起来也非常难懂。读了这篇文章，我深感自己的英语写作需要提高的地方还有许多。
如果新旧信息的安排不合理，文章就会难以理解。此外，作者和读者思维方式的不同也会使文章难以理解。在我做PPT的时候，导师常常指出我的一个问题：缺乏连贯性。两张相连的幻灯片之间没有平滑的过渡，听众往往不理解为什么突然从一个话题讲到另外一个话题去了。一开始，虽然我也会听从他的建议，但是我从内心里对他的建议不以为然。几年之后，我终于领悟到：不同的人的思维方式是不同的，而演讲者应该使自己的表达方式和听众的思维方式一致，听众才易于理解。具体到我的身上而言，我的思维方式跳跃性很强，但是听众需要连贯性的理解，所以当我在缺乏过渡的情况下，从一个话题切换到另外一个话题，听众就会感到不解。即使同是跳跃性的思维，如果双方每一次“跳跃”的位置不一样，跳跃性的表达也会难以理解。所以思考的时候，可以天马行空地跳跃性思考，表达的时候，则需要步步为营地连贯性表达。做学术报告如此，写论文同样如此。
文章难懂的第三个原因，也是最重要的原因是整体构架不好。整体构架不好的文章第一个特点是抓不住重点。要么是在细枝末节上解释太多，对于关键的内容却一笔带过；要么是把关键内容放在不显眼的位置。正常情况下，重要内容应该放于段落的开头（topic sentence，主题句）或者末尾。开头是最常见的位置，因为读者阅读一个段落，首先看的就是第一句话。当把topic sentence放到段落中间的时候，就会被读者忽视。以前我带教的课程需要学生写比较正规的实验报告，当时写作要求里就硬性规定：每一段的开头必须是topic sentence。整体构架不好的文章第二个特点是抓住了重点，但是逻辑不流畅。这与新旧信息的合理安排和思维方式的一致也有相关性。例如先介绍自己做了哪些实验，再介绍存在的问题及为什么要做这些实验，从逻辑上来讲顺序就不对，反过来才讲得通。
正常情况下，写论文应该先构思整体的提纲，然后构思每一部分（introduction，methods，results，discussion）的提纲，最后构思每一段的提纲。只有当提纲构思好了之后，才动笔详写段落和句子。一篇整体构架好的文章，是容易提炼出提纲或者摘要的文章：只要把每一段的topic sentence拿出来就行了。正因为如此，这样的文章才是最容易理解的文章。
其实英文写作和中文写作并没有太大的差别，上述的三个要点同样适合中文论文的写作。只有当中文写作条理清晰、简明易懂的时候，才考虑怎样写出好的英文论文来。
在考GRE和托福的时候，我总结出了一个提高英语写作能力的方法：把基本的表达方法背下来（我称之为“表达单元”，例如“A长期被认为”：A haslong been thought to be），然后熟练运用。我总结了几百个这样的表达单元，反复背诵（文末可以下载）。事实证明，这是提高英语表达能力的一种有效方法。对于英文论文写作而言，看十几篇经典文献，从中提炼出自己写作能用得上的表达单元，反复背记，是提高英语论文写作能力的快速方法。
快速提高英文表达能力的另一个方法就是记下自己曾经犯过的错误，常常复习，并避免下次重犯。人们犯一个错误，是因为有犯这个错误的“易感因素”，只要这个易感因素没有消除，这个错误就会不断的重复。解决的方法就是记住这个错误，有意识地避免重犯。所以我会把导师对我写作的修改建议保存下来。电子版的直接存档，手写的，我扫描下来存档。然后经常复习。我发现：自己经常犯的错误主要就是那么几个。所以今后在写作时，我就重点注意防止同样的错误。因此，我推荐两篇关于中国人英语写作的常见错误的总结的文章（见下面）：《中式英语与美式英语对照表》和《The
Most Common Habits from more than 200 English Papers written byGraduate Chinese Engineering Students》
此外，导师或者他人帮自己修改论文的时候，不能简单地采纳他们的修改意见，而要仔细思考为什么需要那样改？好在哪里？只有弄明白了这些问题，将来才能独立写出好的论文来。
遇到不会的表达怎么办？
检索英文网页，直接输入自己不确定的表达方法，例如不清楚“在10月1日”的表达方法是On October 1st，还是At October 1st，就可以分别检索这两种表达方法。正确的检索结果远多于错误的结果。当然还有更基本的检索方法，就是直接输入中文 + 英语翻译，例如“在显微镜下观察英语翻译”。
CNKI翻译助手：
遇到专业名词不知道翻译怎么办？CNKI翻译助手以中国知网数据库里面的中英文标题和摘要为依据，提供专业名词的翻译。不过由于都是中国人写的，翻译可能不十分准确，但是至少提供了一个参考。建议对查到的译法用Google学术进一步验证（下面会详述）。检索方法简答，就是直接输入中文，点击搜索即可。例如“在显微镜下观察”的搜索结果是：
爱词霸英语句库：
有大量例句。直接输入中文，检索英文。不过不是每一个表达方法都是地道的，所以还需要用Google学术进一步验证。
Google学术：
优点是可以对发表的论文进行全文检索，所以适合用来参考论文写作的表达方法。假如不知道“帕金森病患者”怎样翻译，就可以在Google学术里面输入“patient Parkinson's disease”，然后搜索，可以看到正确的用法是patientwith Parkinson's disease. 值得注意的是，检索的结果也有出错的可能，所以一般选用使用频率最高的表达方法，这样的表达应该最可靠。
我常犯的一些错误：
1. 缺乏参考文献。每一句话，除非是常识，如果是事实性的，都需要参考文献支持。
2. 句子太长。一般而言是短句比长句好，常用单词比生僻单词好。
3. an，a不分
4. 单复数不分：例如该加s的地方没加s，该用have的地方用了has等。
5. the的用法不对
推荐的文章：
周耀旗（印第安那大学信息学院教授）：《写好英语科技论文的诀窍：主动迎合读者期望，预先回答专家可能质疑》
这篇文章值得精读十遍，但最重要的是要熟练运用。
《The Science of Scientific Writing》
是《写好英语科技论文的诀窍：主动迎合读者期望，预先回答专家可能质疑》一文的主要参考文献，同样建议精读和熟练运用。
吴健生:《中英文论文写作的最大不同》
文中关于新旧信息顺序的举例很好。
《The Most Common Habits from more than 200 English Papers written byGraduate Chinese Engineering Students》
《中式英语与美式英语对照表》
总结了大量中国人写英语的常见错误及正确的表达方法
施一公：《如何提高英文的科研写作能力》
孙常全：《提高写科研论文效率之“化整为零法 (Modular approach)》
任胜利：《科技写作》系列博文
推荐的书籍：
The elements of style （51页）
这是很多人推荐的书籍，主要讲的是写作的细节问题。我认为做事情应该“先战略，后战术”，所以对于写作而言，第一步是建立起好的框架（提纲），然后是段落和句子的组织，最后才是具体的表达。不过这本书不长，也值得一看。
最后说一下我自己写段落的方法吧，在国内的时候没经过系统的英语学术写作训练血和泪的教训之后，老师教给我的TEES大法。
这个方法是分解段落的层次和梳理逻辑关系用的，可以让你的文章更有逻辑性，也可以说是所谓的Critical thinking.
T: Topic, 中心句
E: Evidence 论据
E: Explain 论证
S: Sum up 结论
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开篇先推荐一本书，《从一到无穷大》，这书特别好，怎么个好法儿呢？首先它有中文版，而且翻译的非常流畅，不像蓝皮的《万物简史》翻译得那么操蛋；其次书不是特别厚，起码不像GEB（《歌德、埃舍尔、巴赫》）那本一千多页直接让你丧失阅读兴趣；最后也是最重要的，作者把科学写得非常美，那种让你读完之后会后悔当时为什么选了文科的那种后悔，那种当时老师为什么开学不推荐你读读的那种后悔。
读完这本呢，我估计你有点热血沸腾，觉得学理工科似乎不是一件那么没有意义的事情，下面我建议读一本心灵鸡汤的书。这种其实书哪本都行，都是自己给自己的心理暗示。
心理建设完，要开始谈谈论文的事情，首先建议你看一本英语学习的书，准确的说，不是书，而且看作者在书后开的单子。
这里推荐两个能上谷歌的网站（不用翻墙）
掌握方法之后，就可以开始拿英文论文实战了。看的时候，我顺带建议你看看麦肯锡的金字塔原则是个什么玩意，这个有书，应该是一个老太太写的，我看过，没劲，还有几个日本人写的，我也看过，一般，直接看冯唐写的一篇《老聃的金字塔原则》（摘自《活着活着就老了》，网上搜博客有）就成。为的是刻意训练思维方式。（见）
等到开写的时候，我推荐下面几本书。从宏观层面，首先是《SCI论文写作和发表》，作者是中国人，看了容易上手。
接着是science research writing，也是针对英文非母语的人群的指导作品。放心，都不厚。
然后是一本随写随查的工具书，作用类似于你小学刚写作文的好词好句集外加语法书，特别有用。比如你不知道实验仪器，瓶瓶罐罐摆那，你怎么描述，看这个。
具体技术层面，图表。图的话，推荐刘万祥的两本书。照着作能画出《经济学人》的图表水平，副作用是你会觉得你之前拿excel画的实在是土炮。
如果觉得这两本太多了，那就看下面一本，跟前边两本差不多。
这里推荐三个画地图或者配色网站
说到excel，推荐一本买了白买纯粹摆着好看的书。如果真买了，推荐看最后的那部分，讲怎么做excel小软件界面的，很有用。
作图和数据分析，按道理excel都能干，如果你会编程，其实学学R语言也不错，ggplot2是其中的一个插件，画图方便逼格高，尤其是默认配色，远比excel好看，这里特别强调excel的默认配色是难以接受的土，如果你想画好看，真得看看我上面写的配色网站。
最后说一句，还可以看看雅思小论文的写作指导书，看了就知道面对图表应该怎么写。
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