英语翻译12 TV-Y7VideoThis World Is for the Birds Embarrassed by her recent defeat,Captain Twyla makes a deal with Borgam to betray Hazar.Hazar sends her to the Galaxy Alliance fleet to help with a joint exploration,but she sets up an ambush inste_百度作业帮
英语翻译12 TV-Y7VideoThis World Is for the Birds Embarrassed by her recent defeat,Captain Twyla makes a deal with Borgam to betray Hazar.Hazar sends her to the Galaxy Alliance fleet to help with a joint exploration,but she sets up an ambush inste
英语翻译12 TV-Y7VideoThis World Is for the Birds Embarrassed by her recent defeat,Captain Twyla makes a deal with Borgam to betray Hazar.Hazar sends her to the Galaxy Alliance fleet to help with a joint exploration,but she sets up an ambush instead.However,she's badly injured in the attempt and taken aboard the Explorer to recover.Worried,her second in command launches an all-out attack.23:09 $1.99 View In iTunes
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12 电视 Y7VideoThis 世界是鸟被她最近的失败的尴尬，船长德亚普使交易 Borgam 背叛哈扎尔。哈扎尔把她送去帮助联合勘探，银河联盟舰队，但她而是设置埋伏。然而，她有严重受伤尝试中，采取浏览器上船，收回。担心，她第二次在命令中的发动全力攻击。23:09 售价 1.99 美元视图在 iTunes朗读Mp3下载复制12台电视Y7VideoThis世界是为她的最近失败困窘的鸟，...
12 TV-Y7VideoThis世界是为了鸟类由于她最近的失败,队长Twyla使处理Borgam出卖哈。 哈捎信银河同盟舰队去帮我解决一个共同开发,但她建立了伏击来代替。然而,她是受了重伤的尝试和采取探险家来恢复。上担心,她的第二个在命令发动全面进攻。23:09 iTunes观1.99美元...
扫描下载二维码Roman Empire
Early Republic
Early Republic
Portrait Gallery
Roman Empire
Children's Section
Choose which paragraph to jump to and press "Go!":
Paragraphs of this Chapter in Sequence:
The Beginnings
The Magonids
The Hannonians
Treaty with Rome - 306 BC
First Punic War
- Reasons for the War
- Beginning of the War
- Regulus lands in Africa
- War drags on in Sicily
- Carthage defeated
The Mercenary Revolt
Hamilcar Barca
Conquests in Spain
Hasdrubal the Elder
Second Punic War
- The City of Saguntum
- Hannibal invades Italy
Hannibal, Ruler of Carthage
The Numidian Problem
Third Punic War
The Fall of Carthage
Carthage is indisputably of key importance to Roman history. The first great imperial opponent of Rome, they took the Romans to the very brink of defeat. The battles in the titanic struggle between the two powers helped forge the Roman legions and navies into the supreme fighting force in the Mediterranean.
But the annihilation which befell Carthage after its final defeat by Rome makes it an almost unknown quantity to most students of Roman history.
Therefore any history of the Roman empire perhaps also needs to ask the question, who were the Carthaginians ?
Below is a brief history, which might go some way to explaining Rome's greatest and perhaps most mysterious enemy.
Rome was now in very dire straits indeed. If one considers the losses she had suffered at the battles of Trebia, Trasimene and Cannae, once can easily deduct that nearly a third of her overall army had been destroyed. Worse still, among these losses were the battle-hardened veterans of the legions.
Her forces critically weakened, a invincible enemy in her very homeland, Rome seemed doomed. The city of Capua now changed sides, opening its gates to Hannibal.
Much of southern Italy now fell into Carthaginian hands. The large, powerful cities, or other well defended strongpoints held out, but much of the land had come over to Hannibal.
Naples and Nola successfully resisted Hannibal's attempts, but the great general will no doubt have retired to Capua for the winter of 216-15 BC in high spirits.
Hannibal had reason to be optimistic. Rome's military might had crumbled under his assault. And the following year would deepen Rome's crises even further.
In 215 BC Hieron of Syracuse died, to be succeeded by Hieronymus, who broke off the treaty with Rome and changed instead to the Carthaginian side. Mago arrived in Spain bringing reinforcements to deal with the Scipios and the Spanish tribes. The army of Roman general Postumius, 25'000 strong, was annihilated in a campaign against the Gauls of northern Italy, who were allied with Hannibal. Sardinia was in revolt against Roman rule. Alas, King Philip V of Macedon allied with Carthage against Rome.
At this very moment in 215 BC Hannibal was at the peak of his power.
With his victory at Zama, Scipio's triumph was complete. Yet in his moment of triumph he did not seek revenge from his enemy. Carthage would have to renounce any claim to territories outside of Africa. In Africa she could keep all, but for the territories of Masinissa, who would be granted independence. Carthage's navy would be allowed to be no larger than twenty ships and she would have to pay Rome reparations of 5000 talents.
Hannibal, Ruler of Carthage
With the end of the Second Punic War, Carthage lost its status as a great military power. It was now effectively a Roman client kingdom.
Hannibal, after an initial period which remains somewhat unclear, found himself pretty much in control of affairs in Carthage. The aristocracy was corrupt and largely discredited, many of Carthage's natural leaders had found their deaths in the war.
What exactly enabled Hannibal to wage any sort of power in these days immediately following the war, is unknown. It seems however likely that Hannibal would hold great influence over the army, even though he was no longer its official commander.
In 196 BC Hannibal was elected as one of the two leaders (suffetes) of Carthage by the People's Assembly together with another man, who seems to have been either his ally or his puppet.
He now set about continuing the reforms of his father, assuring that all magistrates would be appointed by democratic means. In particular the finances and some of the law courts had so far remained in the hands of the aristocracy. The Council of 104 was abolished.
Having wrestled control from the aristocrats Hannibal then commissioned an inquiry into the financial history of previous years. The inquiry, rightly or wrongly, produced evidence illustrating corruption and incompetence on a large scale. The aristocrats were forced to pay back the money they were alleged to have either stolen or squandered. Naturally, this will have been the financial ruin of most of them and will have rid Hannibal of his main political enemies.
Meanwhile in the east Antiochus III, King of Seleucia, had conquered from Egypt the territory of Coele Syria which contained the Phoenician homeland. Was Antiochus hostile toward Rome, the links with Tyre assured him friendly relations with Carthage.
The disgraced aristocrats of Carthage now appealed to Rome, alleging that Hannibal was plotting against Rome together with King Antiochus. If this was actually true or not, is unknown.
The Senate, however, appeared all too willing to believe that the hated Hannibal was concocting some devious plan against them. Scipio himself spoke, urging them to disbelieve Carthaginian traitors and respect the independence they had assured Carthage of.
Alas, it was agreed to send three senators - under the guise as negotiators in territorial disputes between Carthage and Numidia - to Carthage where they were to arrange for the Hannibal to be ousted from power (195 BC). Hannibal, however, suspected much more serious intent. Fearing, perhaps rightly, that they were coming to arrange his assassination, Hannibal fled the city of Carthage.
He fled to Tyre where he was welcomed as a military advisor to King Antiochus III. With Rome's victory over Antiochus, Hannibal could no longer be allowed to stay at the court of Seleucia. Instead he found his way to the courts of other eastern rulers. He ended up at the court of King Prusias of Bithynia, who enjoyed the services of his military expertise for a while, before agreeing to hand him over to the Romans. Before he could be apprehended, Hannibal committed suicide by taking poison (183/182 BC).
The Numidian Problem
With Hannibal gone, one would have thought Carthage's problems with Rome would be over. However what emerged now was a flaw in the settlement that had brought an end to the Second Punic War.
Carthage was left in control of all of Africa, but for the land of the Numidians. And this was to be the source of all the trouble. For Masinissa according to the treaty could lay claim to
any land that had belonged to his ancestors. Now a stream of claims came pouring in, of any ancestral claim Masinissa could dream up. Meanwhile his Numidian riders conducted raids on the
settlements within lands he claimed as his own. Little by little Masinissa started taking over Carthaginian territory.
We know this began before 195 BC, with Hannibal still in charge, as the delegation of senators sent to depose him, had been sent under the pretext of helping
resolve this very issue.
However, Rome had little sympathy with any Carthaginian delegations sent to ask for intervention on their behalf. The memory of war was still fresh and Hannibal at the time was aiding
Antiochus. And so, for the another three decades the problems for Carthage should only grow, as Masinissa encroached ever further into her territory.
So successful was Masinissa's progress that a party established itself in Carthage which actually argued everyone would be best served if Numidia and
Carthage were to unite. This party was led by yet another man called Hannibal. History remembers him as Hannibal the Starling. Naturally, this Hannibal enjoyed the support of Masinissa.
However, this apparent friendliness between Carthage and Numidia was not to last. In 155 BC these political allies of Masinissa were expelled from Carthage.
One of their leaders, a certain Carthalo, then incited the peasants living under Masinissa's rule to rise up. He then sought to use them as a peasant army with which to attack Carthage.
This was however averted by an intervention by Rome.
The Third Punic War
The fall of Carthage is undeniable. Yet the reasons for the Third Punic War seem unclear. Carthage could not have been any military threat to Rome at all.
One possibility is simply that Rome remained fearful and suspicious of its African neighbour and, alas, decided to rid itself of the possible threat.
Another possibility being brought by historians is that the fear of someone as power hungry as Masinissa taking over Carthage might have caused Rome to act.
A third theory is that Carthage, alike other cities at the time, became a revolutionary hotbed. In the same year as Carthage, 146 BC, the city of Corinth should be utterly destroyed by the Romans.
This was done to make an example of the revolutionaries. It is deemed well possible that Rome was as worried about revolutionary radicals in Carthage as it was in Corinth.
In any case war it was. It all began as relations between Numidia and Carthage exploded into war (150 BC). Two battles were fought near the city of Oroscopa. The second ended in disaster for Carthage, famine forcing her army to surrender to the Numidians, only to be slaughtered by the Numidians.
If this wasn't bad enough, news then arrived that Rome was mobilising as a reaction to Carthage's breach of the peace treaty.
A delegation was immediately despatched by Carthage, virtually begging for Rome not to attack.
The city of Utica now came out in favour of Rome, so allowing the Roman army under the command of consuls Manius Manilius and L.Marcius Censorinus to land in Africa unhindered (149 BC).
While the Roman army marched on Carthage, the delegation in Rome was handing over control of the city to the Romans, if only they spared Carthage.
The rulers of Carthage handed over all the weapons of the city to avert an attack. But it was hopeless. Manilius, encamped outside the city with his legions, let it be known that the Roman senate had decided that Carthage should be destroyed. If Manilius hoped for a simple surrender, then his announcement achieved the exact opposite. The entire city put to producing weapons, to replace those handed to the Romans. When finally Manilius lost patience in waiting for a surrender. His army was ordered to attack, but was beaten back by the rearmed Carthaginians.
The Fall of Carthage
And so a siege began. But Carthage proved a hardy opponent. The following year, the two new Roman consuls arrived, maintained the siege but concentrated their efforts on capturing other Punic cities which had remained loyal to Carthage. However they failed utterly.
Alas, Rome lost patience with such incompetence and elected a new consul to deal with the matter. They chose Scipio Aemilianus, who had so far served successfully as a military tribune in the conflict.
Scipio Aemilianus arrived just in time to save L.Hostilius Mancinus, one of the consuls he came to replace, who found himself and some troops trapped by Carthaginian forces.
Immediately after the arrival of their new commander the Romans went on the attack and his siege works started closing in on the city's defences. A dam was built across the mouth of the harbour to cut off any supplies which still got in by ships. The Carthaginians, desperate to open up their harbour again, cut a channel, from their military docks to the sea, but the Roman navy outside enforced an effective blockade nonetheless.
Scipio's forces edged their way gradually into parts of the city. But still no breakthrough occured. In the winter of 147/146 BC the last Punic army was defeated, which meant Rome was effectively in control
of all the countryside. Spring 146 BC saw the final Roman assault.
Starving and exhausted the defenders could hold them back no longer. Vicious street fighting saw the legionaries edge ever closer to the citadel, to where 50'000 terrified souls had fled. They held out for 6 days. Their lives were spared, only for them to spend the rest of their days as slaves.
Carthage's last stand, however, was made by Romans. 900 deserters, who knew they'd be granted no mercy at the hands of the conquering legions, locked themselves up in the Temple of Eshmun. When they could no longer resist they chose instead to set fire to the temple and die in the flames.
The last leader of the Carthaginians, yet another Hasdrubal, who was with them escaped the temple and surrendered to Scipio Aemilianus. Though not before his wife and children had thrown themselves into the flames.
Scipio then followed his orders to the letter. Carthage was to be razed to the ground, no stone was to be left upon another, the soil was to be ploughed and strewn with salt.
Alas, when Carthage was destroyed so famously by Rome, not all of her building were razed to the ground. As buildings were destroyed on the hills, their rubble covered some of those buildings
on the slopes. Therefore there was indeed buildings left to excavate for modern day archaeologists. (The buildings suggest that even wealthy Carthaginians lived in relatively small houses,
with no central courtyards.)
Yet Carthage did arise again, however this time as a Roman colony. Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC established it as the first Roman colony off Italian soil. However, it was not until further efforts were made by Julius Ceasar that the place began to prosper. And it would take until the reign of emperor Augustus for it become a city again.